Lucid Dreaming :: essays research papers

Lucid DreamingDreams are the playground of the mind. Anything can happen when one is fantasying. The only limitation is that we only rarely realize the freedoms give to us in our dreams while we have them. Lucid dreaming is the ability toknow when one is dreaming, and be able to influence what will be dreamt. Anormal dream is much like passively watching a movie take place in your skull.In a lucid dream, the escapist is the writer, director, and star of the movie.Lucid dreams are exceptionally interesting.Lucid dreaming is defined as dreaming when the dreamer knows that they aredreaming. The term was coined during the 1910s by Frederik cutting edge Eeden who usedthe word "lucid" in the sense of mental clarity (Green, 1968). Lucidity usuallybegins in the midst of a dream, when the dreamer realizes that the experience isnot occurring in physical reality, but is a dream. Often this realization istriggered by the dreamer noticing some impossible or unlikely occurrence in thedre am, such as meeting a person who is dead, or flying with or without wings.Sometimes tidy sum become lucid without noticing any particular clue in the dreamthey just suddenly realize that they are in a dream. A minority of lucid dreams(about 10 percent) are the result of returning to rapid eye movement sleep directly from anawakening with unbroken reflective consciousness (LaBerge, 1985). These types oflucid dreams occur most often during daytime napping. If the napper has been REMdeprived from a antecedent night of little sleep their chances of having a REMperiod at sleep onset are increased. If the napper is able to continue his orher train of belief up to the point of sleep, a lucid dream may develop due toan immediate REM period.The basic definition of lucid dreaming requires cipher more than thedreamer becoming aware that they are dreaming. However, the quality of lucidityvaries greatly. When lucidity is at a high level, the dreamer is aware thateverything experienced in th e dream is occurring in their mind, that there is noreal danger, and that they are asleep in bed and will awaken eventually. Withlow-level lucidity they may be aware to a certain extent that they are dreaming,perhaps enough to fly, or alter what they are doing, but not enough to realizethat the people in the dream are just figments of their imagination. They arealso unaware that they can suffer no physical damage while in the dream or thatthey are actually in bed.

A Rebuttal to E. R. Dodds On Misunderstanding the Oedipus Rex Essay

A Rebuttal to E. R. Dodds On Misunderstanding the Oedipus Rex In On Misunderstanding the Oedipus Rex, E. R. Dodds takes issue with three different opinions on Oedipus Rex. I consider the first two opinions, which Dodds gleaned from student papers, to be defensible from a close reading of the text. The first of these opinions is that Oedipus was a bad man, and was therefore punished by the gods Dodds counters that Sophocles intended for us to regard him as good, noble, and selfless. But the play would seem to indicate that Oedipus, while a clever man, is not a good adept -- this can be shown through Dodds own source of argument, the attitude of the chorus, as well as through Oedipus own actions onstage. Oedipus does not, as Dodds asserts, unselfishly seek by the truth even though he knows it will be painful for him rather, he has no idea what the outcome of his search will be, denies the truth at every turn, and threatens those who speak it. The second conclusion drawn by students -- that Oedipus actions are entirely determined by the gods, who control him completely -- Dodds pooh-poohs on the grounds that Oedipus is a free agent, acting on his own initiative. In fact, Dodds states, the idea of free will vs. determinism is a Hellenistic thought and would not have even occured to an sense of hearing of Sophocles time. I believe that, as all of Oedipus actions, including those over the course of the play, were determined before his birth, and he cannot avoid them although it is his will to do so, those actions cannot be construed as satisfying choice. This play contains many post-Sophoclean ideas, such as denial, that (while not yet named by Greek society) still were understood by the audience. In his rebuttal of the first opi... ... aim at it as Greeks would, isnt this the same as saying that the play is meaningless to todays readers? One of the wonders of classic texts is that every generation will find something new in them. This should not be looked up on as a sign of students ignorance, but rather of their ingenuity. Works Cited and ConsultedDodds, E. R. On Misunderstanding the Oedipus Rex. Twentieth Century Interpretations of Oedipus Rex A Collection of hypercritical Essays. Ed. Michael J. OBrien. New Jersey Prentice-Hall, 1968. 17-29.Hamilton, Edith. Mythology Timeless Tales of Gods and Heroes. New York Penguin Books, 1940.Knox, Bernard M. W. The Heroic Temper Studies in Sophoclean Tragedy. Berkeley U of California Press, 1964.Sophocles. Oedipus Rex. An Introduction to Literature, 11th ed. Eds. Sylvan Barnet, et al. New York Longman, 1997. 800-836.

Essay on Social Conventions in Jane Eyre and Hedda Gabler

Social Conventions in Jane Eyre and Hedda Gabler Charlotte Brontes novel Jane Eyre and Henrik Ibsens play Hedda Gabler were written within fifty years of each other in the late 1800s. both Jane and Hedda exist within the same kindly contexts. They are women of the middle class in European cultures. The fact Jane is penniless through much of the novel does non exclude her from the middle class. Jane and Heddas experiences, education and values all belong to the middle class. Therefore it should be no surprise their words echo. In detail and proceeds their stories are different. However, it is the constraints of the same social conventions which drive their different destinies. It is the same confusion of social convention with morality and spirituality that pains both their existences. Confusing social convention with legal, moral, and religious codes of conduct is a phenomena not confined to the 19th century. It is this same confusion that created Jim Crow Laws, anti-gay legislat ion and fuels the fire of the abortion rights debate. Social conventions of the 1800s did not allow women of the middle class to live independently. With few exceptions women moved from fathers household to husbands household. It was the fathers prerogative to arrange a suitable marriage. In truth there world power be a carefully selected few to choose from, but any unauthorized selection would hold severe consequences for both men and women. Jane Eyres mother was disowned because she chose to get married an unapproved man. Jane would suffer because of this transgression, which occurred before she was even born. After being orphaned, Jane lives with her Aunt Reed. She is continually reminded she is a dependent and is unloved by her r... ...ton Prentice Hall, 1992. Ellis, Kate and Kaplan, Ann. Nineteenth Century Women at the Movies Adapting Classic Womens Fiction to Film. Bowling Green, OH Popular, 1999 Jane Eyre. Dir. Christy Cabanne. Perf. Virginia Bruce, Colin Clive, and Be ryl Mercer. 1934. Jane Eyre. Dir. Franco Zeffirelli. Perf. William Hurt, Charlotte Gainsborough, and Anna Paquin. 1996 Jane Eyre. Dir. Julian Aymes. Perf. Timothy Dalton, Zelah Clarke. 1983 Jane Eyre. Dir. Robert Stevenson. Perf. Joan Fontaine, Orson Welles, and Margaret OBrien. 1944 Peters, Joan D. Finding a Voice Towards a Womans Discourse in Dialogue in the Narration of Jane Eyre. Studies in the Novel. 23 no 2. (1991) 217-36. Zonana, Joyce. The Sultan and the Slave Feminist Orientalism and the Structure of Jane Eyre. Signs. 18 no 3. (1993) 592-617

The Communist Manifesto Essay -- Communist Manifesto Essays

The Communist ManifestoMarx describes the problem in great detail in the first chapter. He feels there is a problem between the bourgeoisie and the proletarians. The bourgeoisie were the oppressed class before the French Revolution and he argues that they are now the oppressors. The proletarians are the new working(a) class, which works in the large factory and industries. He says that through mass industry they have sacrificed everything from the old way of religion, employment, to a mans self-importance worth and replaced it with m hotshottary value. He is mad that the people of ole that use to be upper class such as skills man, trades people, & shopkeepers, are now slipping into the proletarians or working class. He talks of the bourgeoisie getting to be so greedy that they are forced to nest all over the world to drench their goods. This is talking about the new import and export system that has formed. He says the working class has to deal with the flux of the market and is di sposed of more considerably than the machines used in the market. He says that they actually become part of the machine while working. Doing the simplest and most monotonous part of the job. In this new system Marx says as repulsiveness of work increases, the wage of work decreases. He also prophesizes that machines will become so advanced that the wages for man will become one extremely low rate. He says the proletarians live a life of exploitation. By being exploited at work in the w...

Safe Alternative to Toxic Chemicals Used in Agriculture :: Environment Environmental Pollution Preservation

Safe Alternative to Toxic Chemicals Used in AgricultureLet the humanity bring forth vegetation every kind of plant that bears origin and every kind of reaping tree on earth that bears fruit with its seed in it. And so it happened the earth brought forth every kind of plant that bears seed and every kind of fruit tree on earth that bears fruit with its seed in it. God saw how good it was (Genesis 111-12). The cosmos once consisted of a Garden of Eden where all was good and pure. Weather or non you believe in the Catholocists theory of how the earth was created is irrelevant. What we do know from research, technology, and tradition among cultures is that there was a period of time, in the beginning of time, where productivity did not rely on the necessities of a modern world. Although the world of technology has improved many aspects of the lives of humans and other fortunate creatures on this earth, it is also causing the ravaging and extinction of other entities. The good earth that once occupied the land of this existing world is one of the unfortunate recipients of tragedy caused by the advancements of the improving world we live in. We live in an environment that is altered in every way by man. Every piece of material used each day is contaminated from humans trying to improve the normal lifestyle. This community we live in is no longer a natural one due to the products existence used and the food being processed. Through the destruction of man, by man, an increase of deaths by serious illness has expanded. Humans should have reason to question the causes of these fatalities. The result to this problem needs to be sought. It is pertinent that we educate ourselves and take interest in what is happening to the earth in order to ensure our future. The first conclusion that needs to be met is to determine and evaluate the chemicals that exist in the agricultural environment. Certain criteria such as evaluating statistics of illness and death caused by th ese chemicals, how government officials atomic number 18 regulating pesticidal use, and establishing alternative methods of living need to be included when evaluating this dilemma.The Industrial Revolution although a time of immense prosperity for the United States brought such inventions and chemicals to lodge that changed the world forever. The chemical and pesticide use on crops after World War I also contributed to the decline of the quality of

Safe Alternative to Toxic Chemicals Used in Agriculture :: Environment Environmental Pollution Preservation

Safe Alternative to Toxic Chemicals Used in AgricultureLet the primer coat bring forth botany every kind of plant that bears seed and every kind of fruit tree on earth that bears fruit with its seed in it. And so it happened the earth brought forth every kind of plant that bears seed and every kind of fruit tree on earth that bears fruit with its seed in it. theology saw how unspoiled it was (Genesis 111-12). The world once consisted of a Garden of Eden where all was good and pure. Weather or not you believe in the Catholocists theory of how the earth was created is irrelevant. What we do know from research, technology, and tradition among cultures is that there was a period of time, in the beginning of time, where productivity did not rely on the necessities of a modern world. Although the world of technology has improved many aspects of the lives of humans and other fortunate creatures on this earth, it is also causing the destruction and extinction of other entities. The good earth that once occupied the land of this existing world is one of the unfortunate recipients of tragedy ca dropd by the advancements of the improving world we live in. We live in an environment that is altered in every way by man. Every piece of material used each day is contaminated from humans severe to improve the normal lifestyle. This community we live in is no longer a natural one due to the products cosmos used and the food being processed. Through the destruction of man, by man, an increase of deaths by serious illness has expanded. Humans should have reason to question the causes of these fatalities. The solution to this problem needs to be sought. It is pertinent that we educate ourselves and take interest in what is happening to the earth in order to ensure our future. The first goal that needs to be met is to limit and evaluate the chemicals that exist in the agricultural environment. Certain criteria such as evaluating statistics of illness and death caused by these chemicals, how government officials are regulating pesticidal use, and establishing alternative methods of subsisting need to be included when evaluating this dilemma.The Industrial Revolution although a time of immense prosperity for the United States brought such inventions and chemicals to society that changed the world forever. The chemical and pesticide use on crops after World War I also contributed to the decline of the quality of

A Comparison and Contrast of Ideas of Beauty

It has often been said that beauty is in the eye of the beholder. This may closely be true, but many people, particularly women, have trouble seeing their own beauty, especially when they do non look just like every one else.The common chord short stories that were assigned, Beauty When The Other Dancer Is The Self, by Alice carriage, Mirrors, by Lucy Grealy, and The Story of My Body, by Judith Ortiz Cofer, all share the same premise. In each story, each youngish woman is faced with trials due to the way they look. The way that they choose to deal with these trials, however, is different for each one.Beauty When The Other Dancer Is The Self is the story of Alice Walkers life as a child. She thrived on being con expressionred cute and sassy. At one point in the story, she even mentions that she was fond of staring at people, just so they would nonice her and how beautiful she was. Unfortunately, all that changed when she was accidently shot in the eye with a BB pellet.She lost s ight in that eye, and the eye formed a large white cataract that people would stare at and comment on. Walker refused to look anyone in the eye for years. She became extremely uncomfortable with the idea that she was no hourlong beautiful in the traditional sense, and her social and scholastic abilities suffered for it. When she was older, she had the chance to have the cataract re locomote, and nothing but a blue scar remained.This did wonders for her confidence, until she had a child of her own. She overturned about what the child might think of her blind eye, but a television show featuring a blue globe gave the child the idea that her pay back had a world in her eye. To the child, this was a wonderful thing. Walker, gaining acceptance from her child, was able to finally accept herself.Mirrors, by Lucy Grealy, is the story of the authors battle with pubic louse of the jaw and the disfiguration it caused. Grealy was young when she had to have part of her jaw removed, so along with the normal trials of growing up, she was forced to deal with the pain of chem other(a)apy and the stares and taunts of insensitive children and adults.When the reconstruction of her face failed time after time, she gave up looking into mirrors. In fact, she avoided any shiny surface. She stayed in the library most of the time, reading books about the Holocaust and other dreadful times in history to dress her pain seem less significant. When she finally had a chance to have work done on her face overseas, she jumped at the chance.She seemed to think that having a perfect face would solve all of her problems. Instead, the surgeries caused new problems. She had to have work done on the healthy side of her face to make a match, and she ended up looking nothing like what she thought she would. Not being able to reconcile with her new face, she snub mirrors for a whole year. However, at the end of her story, she encountered a man who made her feel good about herself. Finally, she had the acceptance she needed to peak at her materialisation in a window.The Story of my Body, by Judith Ortiz Cofer, tells the tale of what is was like for the young Cofer to grow up Puerto Rican. In her own society she was considered light skinned and tall. When she moved to the United States, she was considered dark and short. This instant change in the way people perceived her was very hard for the child to take.She got to the point where she no longer precious to look at herself. She was an outcast at school, so much so that her parents had to send her to live with her grandparents in order to attend a different school. Unfortunately, things werent much better for her there. She was bone-thin at the age where most teenagedrs start to blossom.She was also considered dirty by white people, and was unable to date the boy she loved because his parents would not allow him to date a dark girl. However, Cofer excelled in school. It was the one thing that she could do right. When her good grades got her into college, she was in a different world where people undercoat her exotic and beautiful. Being accepted came, oddly enough, by being different.These three stories have much in common. For instance, all three women gave up looking at themselves for various amounts of time. Being told that they were ugly and dirty took a toll on each ones self esteem. Each woman had a somatic problem. Walker had a discolored, blind eye, Grealy had a terribly disfigured face, and Cofer, along with being the exact opposite of the standards for beauty, had chicken pox scars all over her face.All of these reasons, although they deviate in severity, were more than enough reason to make a young woman want to hang her head. No one ever said that the teenage and young adult years were easy, anyway. Perhaps the most important thing that they all had in common was the need for something to better their perceptions of themselves. For Walker, it was her child. Once she had acceptance fr om her secondary one, she was free to face the world.For Grealy, it was having lunch with a man who did not seem disgusted or turned off by her deformities. His attitude towards her was enough to make her want to see what he saw in her. For Cofer, it was excelling in school and making it to college. There she found people who didnt care if she was different, and some that actually seemed to like her better because she was different. She could finally think of herself as pretty again.The stories also have some contrasting themes. The types of suffering experienced by the women were vastly different. Although one can emphasize with Cofer over being picked last in gym and looking different, her suffering was much less than Grealys loss of a grant of her face or Walkers loss of sight. The way that each woman overcame her difficulties is also different. Cofer used her smarts and her mental ability to rise above those who hagridden her. Walker was partially freed by having her catarac t removed in order to look more normal.However, Grealy turned her back on her femininity for a while and withdrew into books, not wanting to accept the fact that she lived in the real world. She was perked up by the man mentioned above, but she fell into a sad life of drug habituation and eventual suicide. This is perhaps the largest contrast. While Walker and Cofer found their beauty, Grealy apparently never did.In conclusion, these three stories have a lot to teach us about our answer to suffering. We should not hide ourselves away from the world because of our problems, but neither should we cause other people to want to hide away because of our stares and comments. Beauty is subjective. Magazines and movies would have us believe that only one kind of beauty is acceptable, but that is not the case.People who rise from adversity are often left with beautiful souls, and that is what we should look for in a person. All these women mentioned were beautiful because they persevered, and it is a shame that Grealy could not come to see herself in that light. If nothing else, these stories should show the reader that beauty really is in the eye of the beholder, and we should never do or say anything to steal another persons beauty from them.

Problems Faced by Female Teachers

sex activity variation Discriminationis theprejudicialor distinguishing handling of an individual base on his or her rank and file or perceived membership in a certain group or category. It involves the groups initial chemical re follow out or interaction, influencing the individuals actual behavior towards the group or the group leader, restricting members of wizard group from opportunities or privileges that are available to an other(a) group, leading to the projection of the individual or entities based on licit or irrational decision making.Discriminatory traditions, policies, ideas, practices, and imgrammatical constituentialitys exist in many a(prenominal) countries andinstitutionsin every part of the world. In few places, controversial attempts such asracial quotashave been used to redress negative effects of contrast yet have or so clippings been called sneak discriminationthemselves. Though gender discrimination refers to beliefs and positionsin relation to th egenderof a person, such beliefs and attitudes are of a amicable nature and do not, normally, transmit any legal consequences.Teacher Cadet EssayGender discrimination, on the other hand, may have legal consequences. Though what constitutes gender discrimination varies between countries, the essence is that it is an adverse action taken by one person against some other person that would not have occurred had the person been of another gender. Discrimination of that nature is considered a form of preconceived opinionand in certain enumerated circumstances is illegal in many countries. Gender discrimination can arise in different contexts.For instance an employee may be discriminated against by beingness asked discriminatory questions during a clientele interview, or by an employernot hiring or promoting, unequally paying, or wrongfully terminating, an employee based on her (or his) gender. In an educational setting in that location could be claims that a student was excluded fro m an educational institution, program, opportunity, loan, student group, or scholarship because of her/his gender. In the housing setting there could be claims that a person was refused negotiations on seeking a house, contracting/leasing a house or getting a loan based on his or her gender.Another setting where there have been claims of gender discrimination is banking for example if one is refused credit or is offered unequal loan terms based on ones gender. Another setting where there is ordinarily gender discrimination is when one is refused to extend his or her credit, refused approval of credit/loan process, and if there is a burden of unequal loan terms based on ones gender. Socially, gender differences have been used to justifydifferent roles for men and women, in some cases giving rise to claims of primary and junior-grade roles.While there are alleged non-physical differences between men and women, major reviews of the academic literature on gender difference find only a particular minority of characteristics where there are consistent psychological differences between men and women, and these relate directly to experiences grounded in biological difference. However, there are similarly some psychological differences in regard to how problems are dealt with and emotional perceptions and reactions that may relate to hormones and the successful characteristics of each gender during longstanding roles in past primitive lifestyles.In the growing countries like Nepal, gender discrimination is one of the major backwards of development. Itdescribes the absence of obvious or hush-hush disparities among individuals based on gender. Disparities can include the discrimination in terms of opportunities, resources, services, benefits, decision-making power and influence. Males enjoy a privileged stead from their suffer whereas fe anthropoids are much ignored and/or are isolated from sociable interactions. They are not granted the same opportunities in ed ucation, and other basic rights are often overlooked.When a woman gives birth to a son, he is vigorous cared for and is highly regarded by his family and society. On the other hand, in the event that she gives birth to a daughter, she is ignored and peaked(predicate) regarded. Nepalese society expects young-bearing(prenominal)s to inhabit with their husbands family and their sons and to continue live in his parents home. Thus, the maintenance of the family lineage is perpetuated. Daughters are not considered as heirs in the system of Nepali lineage. Nepals total population is nigh 23 million. give away of this about fifty percent is Women. In Nepal, like other developing countries, the bow of women is not satisfactory.Male dominated family system provides very little scope for the female to assert their identity. They are marginalized from economic and social opportunities due to illiteracy, poverty and conservative social taboos. The present position of women is said to be strong than the past however it is the same. 32 women have been Members of Parliament after restoration of democracy but it is only limited up to the written forms but not so practically. The status of women is the same as it used to be in the past. My neighbor is a pretty woman who has been biography near me for 5 years.Her mother in law tortures her for not giving a birth to a boy tiddler. As she has already given birth to two girl child. So they warned her that if next time she does not give birth to a boy then she has to leave the home and her husband exit marry another woman. So she in the dismay of losing her husband was ready to give birth to another child but unfortunately she got miscarriage and she got admitted to the hospital. The family members in this situation rather than consoling the women they didnt cared about her and left her in the hospital. After few days the husband got married to another woman .They didnt allow her to enter the house and meet her daught ers. workforce can leave their wives for petty reasons such as if they fail to give birth to a male heir. Socially and economically men are always considered as superior to women, breadwinner, head of the family and the care taker and this is major cause for the low participation of women in every sector. This is only one example from our society there are several such discriminations and crimes happening in our society for several reasons. Not only in Nepal but throughout the world females are being dominated by males.It is time that Nepalese men understood the value of their women and respected them for what they are. After all, their mothers were also born as girls. The prevailing unfair social and labour relations compounded by unequal power structure and patriarchal thinking lend to the sorry situation of girls in Nepal. Social attitude towards girls is understood regressive. Majority of girls are denied care, education, health service, recreation and other basic services r ight from the birth. The environment in which they are living is not contributing(prenominal) for physical and cognitive growth.Moreover, the atmosphere that prevails at home, family, community and at the interior(a) level obstruct the raceway of overall development of girls. If we fail to properly go bad the nature and form of the problems and the reasons for such a situation of girls, not only will we be ineffectual to ensure a bright future of our girls, but we will fail to ensure a secure future for our women and mothers. This means the movement for womens hammock will barely be able to asseverate its head above troubled water. Following facts reveal the situation of the girl children in Nepal. a. PopulationGirls in Nepal consist 50 per cent of the total child population. CBS) - In every thousand children Boys Girls Infant deathrate rate (IMR)144. 50 150. 38 nestling mortality rate (U5MR)108. 00 133. 00 b. Gender Discrimination/Son predilectionDiscrimination of girls is rampant in every sector of society. Son preference is very high. According to the 2001 census, the national ratio of boys and girls is 100101, while in some districts such as Far West Kailali it is 10084. c. Literacy RateLiteracy rate of girls is 42 per cent compared to 65 per cent among boys.In Nepal, primary school going girls is 74 per cent compared to 86 per cent boys. (MOE 2003) d. Child MalnutritionChild malnutrition in Nepal is 56. 2 per cent in which the state of girls is more vulnerable than boys. Statistics on breast supply indicate that 51 per cent male children are breast fed, while its number is only 43 per cent among female children. e. Child Sexual usingAlmost 40 per cent of survivors of child sexual abuse and rape are girls downstairs 18 years. Most of them are abused at home, in educational institutions, work places or any given place. They are insecure in all these places. CWIN 2008) f. Child Marriage34 per cent of total marriages in Nepal are with girls below 16 years. Some 7 per cent of child marriages take place with children below 10 years. (UNICEF 2005). Existing practices of dowry in many parts of the country further provokes child marriages in the society. g. Child Labor ExploitationMost mansion chores and child rearing activities are the responsibility of girls. Girls old between 10-14 years work double compared to boys in the same age group. It is also reported that 2. 6 million Nepali children are working in different fields of labor.Amongst these 56% are reported to be girls. (ILO-IPEC, 2001) h. Bonded LabourLabour bondage still persists in the form of Kamlari in the eastern part of Nepal, where girls are kept in the households of their masters to serve them. i. Girl TraffickingGirls are trafficked for different purposes including domestic work, compel beggary, marriage, carpet weaving and sex trade. About 20 per cent (i. e. 40,000) of the total trafficked women for sex trade are girls below 16 years. (CWIN 2006) Annually ap proximately 12,000 girl children and women are trafficked. (ILO,Problems Faced by Female Teachersgender discrimination Discriminationis theprejudicialor distinguishing treatment of an individual based on his or her membership or perceived membership in a certain group or category. It involves the groups initial reaction or interaction, influencing the individuals actual behavior towards the group or the group leader, restricting members of one group from opportunities or privileges that are available to another group, leading to the exclusion of the individual or entities based on logical or irrational decision making.Discriminatory traditions, policies, ideas, practices, and laws exist in many countries andinstitutionsin every part of the world. In some places, controversial attempts such asracial quotashave been used to redress negative effects of discriminationbut have sometimes been calledreverse discriminationthemselves. Though gender discrimination refers to beliefs andattit udesin relation to thegenderof a person, such beliefs and attitudes are of a social nature and do not, normally, carry any legal consequences.Teacher Cadet EssayGender discrimination, on the other hand, may have legal consequences. Though what constitutes gender discrimination varies between countries, the essence is that it is an adverse action taken by one person against another person that would not have occurred had the person been of another gender. Discrimination of that nature is considered a form ofprejudiceand in certain enumerated circumstances is illegal in many countries. Gender discrimination can arise in different contexts.For instance an employee may be discriminated against by being asked discriminatory questions during a job interview, or by an employernot hiring or promoting, unequally paying, or wrongfully terminating, an employee based on her (or his) gender. In an educational setting there could be claims that a student was excluded from an educational instituti on, program, opportunity, loan, student group, or scholarship because of her/his gender. In the housing setting there could be claims that a person was refused negotiations on seeking a house, contracting/leasing a house or getting a loan based on his or her gender.Another setting where there have been claims of gender discrimination is banking for example if one is refused credit or is offered unequal loan terms based on ones gender. Another setting where there is usually gender discrimination is when one is refused to extend his or her credit, refused approval of credit/loan process, and if there is a burden of unequal loan terms based on ones gender. Socially, gender differences have been used to justifydifferent roles for men and women, in some cases giving rise to claims of primary and secondary roles.While there are alleged non-physical differences between men and women, major reviews of the academic literature on gender difference find only a tiny minority of characteristics where there are consistent psychological differences between men and women, and these relate directly to experiences grounded in biological difference. However, there are also some psychological differences in regard to how problems are dealt with and emotional perceptions and reactions that may relate to hormones and the successful characteristics of each gender during longstanding roles in past primitive lifestyles.In the developing countries like Nepal, gender discrimination is one of the major backwards of development. Itdescribes the absence of obvious or hidden disparities among individuals based on gender. Disparities can include the discrimination in terms of opportunities, resources, services, benefits, decision-making power and influence. Males enjoy a privileged status from their birth whereas females are often ignored and/or are isolated from social interactions. They are not granted the same opportunities in education, and other basic rights are often overlooked.When a woman gives birth to a son, he is well cared for and is highly regarded by his family and society. On the other hand, in the event that she gives birth to a daughter, she is ignored and poorly regarded. Nepalese society expects females to inhabit with their husbands family and their sons and to continue living in his parents home. Thus, the maintenance of the family lineage is perpetuated. Daughters are not considered as heirs in the system of Nepali lineage. Nepals total population is about 23 million. Out of this about fifty percent is Women. In Nepal, like other developing countries, the state of women is not satisfactory.Male dominated family system provides very little scope for the female to assert their identity. They are marginalized from economic and social opportunities due to illiteracy, poverty and conservative social taboos. The present status of women is said to be strong than the past but it is the same. 32 women have been Members of Parliament after restoration of de mocracy but it is only limited up to the written forms but not so practically. The status of women is the same as it used to be in the past. My neighbor is a pretty woman who has been living near me for 5 years.Her mother in law tortures her for not giving a birth to a boy child. As she has already given birth to two girl child. So they warned her that if next time she does not give birth to a boy then she has to leave the home and her husband will marry another woman. So she in the fear of losing her husband was ready to give birth to another child but unfortunately she got miscarriage and she got admitted to the hospital. The family members in this situation rather than consoling the women they didnt cared about her and left her in the hospital. After few days the husband got married to another woman .They didnt allow her to enter the house and meet her daughters. Men can leave their wives for petty reasons such as if they fail to give birth to a male heir. Socially and economical ly men are always considered as superior to women, breadwinner, head of the family and the care taker and this is major cause for the low participation of women in every sector. This is only one example from our society there are several such discriminations and crimes happening in our society for several reasons. Not only in Nepal but throughout the world females are being dominated by males.It is time that Nepalese men understood the value of their women and respected them for what they are. After all, their mothers were also born as girls. The prevailing unfair social and labour relations compounded by unequal power structure and patriarchal thinking contribute to the sorry situation of girls in Nepal. Social attitude towards girls is still regressive. Majority of girls are denied care, education, health service, recreation and other basic services right from the birth. The environment in which they are living is not conducive for physical and cognitive growth.Moreover, the atmos phere that prevails at home, family, community and at the national level obstruct the path of overall development of girls. If we fail to properly analyze the nature and form of the problems and the reasons for such a situation of girls, not only will we be unable to ensure a bright future of our girls, but we will fail to ensure a secure future for our women and mothers. This means the movement for womens liberation will barely be able to keep its head above troubled water. Following facts reveal the situation of the girl children in Nepal. a. PopulationGirls in Nepal consist 50 per cent of the total child population. CBS) - In every thousand children Boys Girls Infant mortality rate (IMR)144. 50 150. 38 Child mortality rate (U5MR)108. 00 133. 00 b. Gender Discrimination/Son PreferenceDiscrimination of girls is rampant in every sector of society. Son preference is very high. According to the 2001 census, the national ratio of boys and girls is 100101, while in some districts such a s Far West Kailali it is 10084. c. Literacy RateLiteracy rate of girls is 42 per cent compared to 65 per cent among boys.In Nepal, primary school going girls is 74 per cent compared to 86 per cent boys. (MOE 2003) d. Child MalnutritionChild malnutrition in Nepal is 56. 2 per cent in which the state of girls is more vulnerable than boys. Statistics on breast feeding indicate that 51 per cent male children are breast fed, while its number is only 43 per cent among female children. e. Child Sexual exploitationAlmost 40 per cent of survivors of child sexual abuse and rape are girls below 18 years. Most of them are abused at home, in educational institutions, work places or any given place. They are insecure in all these places. CWIN 2008) f. Child Marriage34 per cent of total marriages in Nepal are with girls below 16 years. Some 7 per cent of child marriages take place with children below 10 years. (UNICEF 2005). Existing practices of dowry in many parts of the country further provokes child marriages in the society. g. Child Labor ExploitationMost household chores and child rearing activities are the responsibility of girls. Girls aged between 10-14 years work double compared to boys in the same age group. It is also reported that 2. 6 million Nepali children are working in different fields of labor.Amongst these 56% are reported to be girls. (ILO-IPEC, 2001) h. Bonded LabourLabour bondage still persists in the form of Kamlari in the eastern part of Nepal, where girls are kept in the households of their masters to serve them. i. Girl TraffickingGirls are trafficked for different purposes including domestic work, forced beggary, marriage, carpet weaving and sex trade. About 20 per cent (i. e. 40,000) of the total trafficked women for sex trade are girls below 16 years. (CWIN 2006) Annually approximately 12,000 girl children and women are trafficked. (ILO,

Case 12-05

MEMO LabCo must determine if their be insurance policy for the revenue treatment of its construction bids is reasonable, if it is appropriate for LabCo to change its manner of history for the holibut campaign from the percentage-of-completion system to the completed- gouge method and how the change should be treated on the instauration of the guidance provided within ASC 250, and how LabCos report policy and accounting for the holibut mash may change under IFRS if adopted in the coming year.This memorandum will provide support for how the overall conclusion, based on the issues above, was reached. Facts news report Policy for Revenue Treatment LabCo is a large construction contracting firm, and negotiates all of its contracts with its customers on any a fixed-price or cost-plus basis. LabCo has developed an accounting policy for revenue recognition related to its customized construction contracts, as follows The Company performs under a variety of contracts, some of which provide for reimbursement of cost plus fees, and others that ar fixed-price-type contracts.Revenues and fees on these contracts are primarily accepted on a contract-by-contract basis using the percentage-of-completion method of accounting, which is most often based on contract be incurred to date compared with entire estimated cost at completion (cost-to-cost method). The completed-contract method of accounting is calld in instances in which reliably dependable estimates of the total be to be incurred under a specific contract cannot be made. Change in Method of invoice for Revenue TreatmentLabCo has entered into a contract with holibut to build a six-axis laser cutting appliance. The contract entered into was for a fixed-price and requires detailed and involved death penalty specifications. Even though this was a unique arrangement that required a coarse deal of customer specification, LabCo believed that with its extensive experience performing under similar contracts , including previous contract with Halibut, the percentage-of-completion method of accounting for this contract was appropriate.After LabCo began experiencing significant difficulties in the propose and manufacture of the six-axis laser cutting utensil, (including design revisions, certain engineering costs needing to be outsourced, and the cost of steel expendd in the production of the frame of the machine rising unexpectedly) they determined that their estimate of the overall cost to complete the contract needed to be revised. LabCo expected that the overall project would incur total costs that would be in excess of the total fixed-fee contract price negotiated with Halibut.As a result, management updated its estimates used in percentage-of-completion accounting to reflect both the cost overruns incurred as well as the cost overruns expected to be incurred, and also recorded a provision for the entire loss on the contract in the menstruum in which it became aware that the cont ract costs would exceed the total contract value. After six-months, LabCo delivered the six-axis laser cutting machine to Halibut. Yet, when final test were ran using the six-axis, the machine failed to perform up to Halibuts specifications as defined in the contract.LabCo then had to redesign, fix, and remedy the various issues with the machine. Upon notification of these continued problems, LabCos CAO determined that total estimates of the contract costs to be incurred for the Halibut contract were no long-lived able to be reliably determined. Therefore, the use of the percentage-of-completion method of accounting was deemed no longer an appropriate method of revenue recognition for this particular contract.As a result, the determination was made that LabCo would switch to a completed-contract method of revenue recognition for the duration of its contract with Halibut. Analysis Percentage-of-Completion Method Based upon review of ASC 605-35-25-56, the use of the percentage-of-com pletion method depends on the ability to make reasonably dependable estimates, which, for purposes of this Subtopic, relates to estimates of the extent of progress toward completion, contract revenues, and contract costs.Furthermore, according to ASC 605-35-25-57, the percentage-of-completion method is considered preferable as an accounting policy in circumstances in which reasonably dependable estimates can be made and in which all the following conditions exist a. Contracts executed by the parties normally include provisions that clearly specify the enforceable rights regarding goods or services to be provided and authoritative by the parties, the consideration to be exchanged, and the manner and terms of settlement. . The buyer can be expected to satisfy all obligations under the contract. c. The contractor can be expected to perform all contractual obligations. ASC 605-35-25-61 states, an entity using the percentage-of-completion method as its basic accounting policy shall use the completed-contract method for a single contract or a group of contracts for which reasonably dependable estimates cannot be made or for which intrinsical hazards make estimates doubtful. Completed-Contract MethodBased on review of ASC 605-35-25-90, when lack of dependable estimates or inherent hazards cause forecasts to be doubtful, the completed-contract method is preferable. Inherent hazards relate to contract conditions or external factors that raise questions about contract estimates and about the ability of either the contractor or the customer to perform all obligations under the contract. Inherent hazards that may cause contract estimates to be doubtful usually differ from inherent business risks.Business entities engaged in contracting, like all business entities, are exposed to numerous business risks that vary from contract to contract. The reliability of the estimating process in contract accounting does not depend on the absence of such risks. Assessing business ris ks is a function of users of financial statements. According to ASC 630-35-25-97, Circumstances to be considered in determining when a project is substantially completed include, for example, delivery of the product, acceptance by the customer, departure from the site, and compliance with performance specifications.Changes to and from Percentage-of-Completion and Completed-Contract Methods Based on review of ASC 605-35-25-94, the completed-contract method is preferable in circumstances in which estimates cannot meet the criteria for reasonable dependability discussed in paragraph 605-35-25-57 or in which in that location are inherent hazards of the personality of those discussed in paragraphs 605-35-25-65 through 25-66.An entity using the percentage-of-completion method as its basic accounting policy shall depart from that policy and use the completed-contract method for a single contract or a group of contracts only in the circumstances described in paragraph 605-35-25-61. In add ition, 605-35-25-95 states, an entity using the completed-contract method as its basic accounting policy shall depart from that policy for a single contract or a group of contracts not having the features described in paragraphs 605-35-25-92 through 25-93 and use the percentage-of-completion method on one of the bases described in paragraphs 605-35-25-60 through 25-61.Accounting Changes and Error Corrections According to ASC 980-250-55-3, if a correct entity changes accounting methods and the change does not affect costs that are allowable for rate-making purposes, the regulated entity would apply the change in the same manner as would an unregulated entity. If a regulated entity changes accounting methods and the change affects allowable costs for rate-making purposes, the change generally would be implemented in the way that it is implemented for regulatory purposes.A change in the method of accounting for research and growth costs, either from a policy of capitalization and am ortization to one of charging those costs to expense as incurred or vice versa, is an example of that type of change. Adopting IFRS Based on review of IAS 18 Revenue, the recognition of revenue by reference to the stage of completion of a transaction is often referred to as the percentage-of-completion method.Under this method, revenue is recognized in the accounting periods in which the services are rendered. The recognition of revenue on this basis provides useful information on the extent of service activity and performance during a period. When the outcome of the transaction involving the rendering of services cannot be estimated reliably, revenue shall be recognized only to the extent of the expenses recognized that are recoverable. Conclusion Accounting Policy for Revenue TreatmentBased on the facts presented and the analysis performed, LabCos accounting policy for the revenue treatment of its construction contracts appears reasonable. On the other hand, while it makes sense to use the percentage-of-completion method for contracts that can be reasonably estimated, the completed-contract method of accounting appears to be the preferred method, due to the specific criteria that must be met in order to delineate for such reasonableness under the percentage-of-completion method of accounting. Change in Method of Accounting for Revenue TreatmentBased on the facts provided and the analysis performed, it is appropriate for LabCo to change is method of accounting for the Halibut contract from the percentage-of-completion method to the completed contract method. According to the guidance (stated above), An entity using the percentage-of-completion method as its basic accounting policy shall depart from that policy and use the completed-contract method for a single contract or a group of contracts only in the circumstances described in paragraph 605-35-25-61. The Halibut contract adheres to this policy, and because there were unexpected issues that caused for th e contract to no longer be reasonably estimated, they are correct in their reasoning for changing to the completed-contract method. On the basis of the guidance provided within ASC 250, Accounting Changes and Error Corrections (provided above), this change should be treated in one of two ways (1) If a regulated entitys change in accounting methods does not affect rate-making costs, the change would be applied in the same manner as an unregulated entity. 2) If a regulated entitys change in accounting methods does affect rate-making costs, the change would be implemented based on regulatory purposes. Adopting IFRS If LabCo decides to adopt IFRS in the upcoming year, there will be a slight change in the Companys accounting policy, as well as their accounting for the Halibut contract. The use of the percentage-of-completion method when contracts can be reasonably estimated will remain consistent with IFRS.However, whenever these costs cannot be reasonably estimated, instead of using the completed-contract method, IFRS states that revenue shall be recognized only to the extent of the expenses recognized that are recoverable. Therefore, the accounting for the Halibut contract will change under IFRS in the same way. In this instance, rather than slip from percentage-of-completion to the completed-contract method, LabCos contract change would consist of altering the percentage-of-completion method in order to adapt to the recognition of revenue as stated by IFRS in the paragraph above.

Prince Shotoku

Prince Shotoku Prince Shotoku was born on February 7,572. Prince Shotoku was a member of the imperial clan and took the throne after Empress Suikos reign. He was also cognize as Prince Umayado, Prince Kamitsumiya. Prince Shotoku was the son of Emperor Yomei. He was the second son born to the Emperor. When he was very(prenominal) little, he read a lot of books and he became very smart. Because of his intelligence and mind, Emperor Yomei decided that his second born son would make a good prince and future emperor. Prince Shotoku came into power in 593.Shotoku was inspired by Buddhist teachings, and wished to form a centralized government in his ruling era. Prince Kamitsumiya created and formed Japans first organization, also known as the Seventeen- Article Constitution to have rules for officials to be much worried about political affairs. He also wanted to spread Buddhism throughout Japan and build temples and much more to spread around the world. Prince Shotoku believed in Buddhi sm and followed all of the Buddhism to reach paradise and be a good Emperor.He was a very intelligent ruler with all of his thoughtful ideas and plans, he brought Japan to its Golden Age. He allowed his people to believe that he was a good ruler and could bring peace and harmony into Japan. After his historic period of ruling, he has turned Japan into a powerful aristocracy, and also noble families also held high positions in the government. All men are influenced by partisanship, and in that location are few who have wide vision. Prince Shotoku From February 7, 572- April 8, 622

Unemployment in Columbia

Its infamy impacts tourism and trade, despite Colombia being the second largest producer of coffee in the world. The unemployment, especially among the youth, acts like fuel to the fire with regards to Colombians scotch uncertainty. The expanse Itself does wee the po tennertial to have a stable economy and at least the minimum acceptable level of public welfare. It will be concern to analyze why the country Is embroiled In warfare Instead of welfare, which Is why I have chosen It to be the topic of my research. 2. Relationships between selected economic concern and country?Economy/other variables (40 points) According to the US Central Intelligence Agencys (CIA) World Fact Book, Colombia had a total work force of closely 21. 27 million (2010 estimates). For a country whose population stood at 44,725,543 (2011 CIA estimates this figure is abysmal. The unemployment rate is at 11. 8% (2010 estimates). It is also important to none that nearly one-half of the country population (45. 5% 2010 estimates) lives below the poverty line. According to a SEPAL (United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean) 1 7% of these are homeless.It Is taken for granted(predicate) that when a errors remains unemployed for a long time, he or she cannot provide the bare necessities of life for their families. However, the high level of poverty In Colombia Is not just attributed to unemployment alone but to the quality of work that those who are employed have. Nearly 32% of those who state themselves to be employed do not have a formal work contract or access to a healthcare system while 48% hold informal jobs such as street vendors and garbage recyclers (SEPAL). So not only is the population of Colombia plagued with unemployment but those who are employed ark in very low paying jobs.When a soulfulness is unable to support his or her family by legal means, they find themselves to be helpless and turn towards illegal trades to earn a living. This applies esp ecially to the youth, who find themselves without an education, without a job and without a bright future prospect. They tend to get Involved in the local drug mafia In one way or the other. Those who are considered Incapable of violence or physical brutality, find work on cocaine farms while the others get Involved In more precarious aspects of the trade.This draining of possible working populace towards an Illegal sector Tanat Is causing more nary than good to ten overall progress AT ten nature takes its toll on the economy. High unemployment has also led to an increase in the economic split divide among the population. The upper class, which accounts for 20% of the population, accounts for about 75% to 80% of the Gross National Product (GNP). The rest of the 20% GNP is shared between the remaining 80% of the population. Being far richer than the masses, the elite class has access to education, healthcare and security.

Prison Classification

Inmates first experience usually occurs in a assortment or reception center, where they are given a barrage of psychological and intelligence tests and are evaluated on the basis of their background, offense history, personality, and treatment needs. Some states rent instituted rigorous classification instruments designed to maximize the effectiveness of placements, thereby cutting down on the cost of incarceration. Prison classification is a method of assessing con risks that balances the security needs of the institution with treatment needs the individual.Effective classification can reduce prison house infractions and create a safer environment of both inmates and staff. outside(a) classification places an inmate at a custody level that will determine where he or she will be ho utilise, internal classification determines the cell or housing unit, as well as the facility programs to which the prisoner will be assigned. External classification systems are now being used in al l Federal and state prison systems in the United States. Internal classification systems focus on those decisions that are made for the incoming prison population.Georgia part of Corrections has a special prison called Jackson diagnostic center. Georgia Diagnostic and classification prison is a Georgia Department of Corrections prison for men in unincorporated Butts County, Georgia, near Jackson. The prison holds the state execution chamber. The prison, the largest in the state, consists of eight cell blocks containing both double-bunked and single-bunked cells. The prison conducts diagnostic processing for the state correctional system, houses male offenders under death sentence, and carries out state ordered executions by lethal injection.The prison complex also contains a special management unit that houses some of the most aggressive and dangerous prisoners in the correctional system. The Georgia Diagnostic and classification prison serves as a central hub where sentenced felo ns begin the process of being admitted into the Georgia state correctional system. Many county jails are paid by the state to house the sentenced felons until space becomes available in the prison system. Based on published research statistics by the Georgia Department of Corrections, inmates who are being diagnosed and classified undergo a battery of tests and diagnostic questionnaires.Tests and diagnostic notions include the culture fair IQtest Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT) (reading, math and spelling) scope of substance abuse (summary, detailed report) in style(p) mental health treatment PULHESDWIT medical scale criminality, alcoholism, and/or drug abuse in immediate family one or both parents absent during childhood manipulative or assaultive tendency diagnostics and criminal report with prior incarcerations and a full account of all previous and current offenses.

Human Service Agencies Essay

Human service agencies are formed by and for the public. As communities grow and change, the need to suffice to the demands of these dynamic societies also increases. Not only does the participation lay itself open to positive opportunities, it is also exposed to the negative drawbacks of this dynamism. In fact, there are so many social issues that individuals alone cannot resolve. These are matters concerning the society that need sufficient and appropriate attention also from the society.These agencies do serve as intermediaries between solutions to problems and individuals, families, and societies. on that point are many issues that individuals, families and societies have that need communal action. I believe that these important issues include the most rampant problems nowadays encountered by people. Even the simplest problems wish underage alcoholism, drug dependence, compulsive gambling, widespread crimes these are social issues that need immediate attention. Issues startin g in individuals or within families also necessitate consideration. some(prenominal) of these are problems of child and women abuse, violence within and outside families, severe and persistent illnesses, including contagious ones, severe emotional disturbances experienced by people, and the like. I think, these simple matters mustiness be acted upon immediately by service organizations like human service agencies. This is to mediate and assure proper assistance to individuals and families, thereby assuring their safety, peacefulness, health and wellness, and the societys as well.I also believe that there are no least important issues, as long as individuals or families, or members of the society are involved, they are considered issues that must be resolved immediately. I arrived at this standpoint because I myself am a member of this society. Directly or indirectly, I rely and I may rely in the future in these human service agencies for betterment, improvement, protection and the like. And I must not be concerned only about myself but also about the welfare of the whole society.

Riordan Manufacturing Strategic Plan Essay

strategical managers prevail responsibleness to both the employees and s bear offholders of the makeup. Engaging in strategic concern decisions should overwhelm ethics and neighborly responsibilities. The expectation of such responsibilities from stakeholders is to fulfill legal and estimable economic decisions. Satisfying the purpose of the strategic be after process for Riordan Manufacturing, the management team has taken into consideration the economic, legal, ethical and discretionary responsibilities. According to Wheelen and hungriness (2010), the ethical and discretionary responsibilities ar likewise known as social responsibilities. Ethical responsibilities require decision-makers to follow expect behaviors of society and the community. Riordan may take substantial hazard by up picture customers by failing to invite existing ethical values. Understanding the existing ethical values and standards of Riordan, the management team pull up stakes give ear senior leaders in think and committing to social responsibilities.Why a strategic Plan?A strategic management protrude provide focus Riordans objectives, goals, and efforts on long-term carrying out and sustainability. Managing short-run goals and successes is relatively uncomplicated and easily attainable, yet longevity is much more difficult to accomplish. Strategic management lays the framework for lasting success. Corporations can no longer sustain profitable business organisation activities by patently main(prenominal)taining a business as usual or status quo schema. As the world and economic markets live to evolve, companies must also transform to accommodate an ever-changing environment. During such transformations, managers should be cargonful to machine transmit that is consistent with the high societys core mission and objectives.Strategic be afterning assists in effectively accomplishing these changes and provides business owners and managers the opportunity to ind uce advance(a) thinking to preserve competitory advantages. Riordan, like other companies, needs a strategic plan. The moldable injection molding company uses modern design capabilities to provide innovative credit card products to national and outside(a) customers. Riordan advertises that attention to detail, extreme precision and enthusiastic quality controls are the hallmarks ofRiordan Manufacturing (Apollo Group, Inc., 2004, Internet). By doting such high standards in a lucrative and militant industry, it is imperative to Riordans success that they implement a strategic plan to manage long-term profitability and sustained growth.Ethical and Social officeTo understand the role that ethical and social responsibility considerations occupy in the development of Riordans strategic organizational planning, one must first recognize what these concepts mean. According to Merriam-Webster (2011), ethics is the discipline dealing with what is substantially and bad and with lesson duty and obligation (para. 1). Outside of this general definition that ethics are standards for morality, researchers and philosophers ready actively sought for many years for a comprehensive and all-encompassing explanation of what is and is not ethical. umteen factors contribute to the meaning of ethics and corresponding behaviors, including but not limited to last, religion, societal influences and pressures, and various stages of moral development. Though social responsibility works hand in hand with ethics, it does possess unique implications. Wheelen and starve (2010) describe that the concept of social responsibility proposes that a private corporation has responsibilities to society that extend beyond making a profit (p. 72).This notion exists because the decisions and actions of a business or organization often are far reaching and affect many others beyond the boarders of the companys facilities and operations. Management has a responsibility to balance that which is g ood for the business and for the surrounding communities and affected parties while formulating strategic plans. Experts in the fields of unified ethics and social responsibility argue that profitability is not the only duty to be cheerful by a business. For example, William J. Byron believes that profits are merely a means to an end, not an end in itself, and Archie Carroll suggests that corporations have four-spot responsibilities economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary (Wheelen & Hunger, 2010, p. 72-73). Riordan is much more likely to experience success and provide greater returns to stakeholders if a well-rounded business approach is adopted, as opposed to a strictly profit-oriented method. An extensive sexual and external environmental scan forget table service Riordan trammel what ethical and social concerns to incorporate in the companys strategic plan.Forinstance, considering present concerns with environmental pollution, including the over-use of plastics and the toxic air pollution created by manufacturing facilities, Riordan should take a proactive stance in environmental sustainability efforts. Riordan operates in a changing world, and if the company chooses not to pay attention to and participate in the vigorous worldwide environmental conservation activities, they may begin themselves out of business and in financial ruin. The ethical and socially responsible role of Riordan affects customers, employees, stakeholders, local and international communities, and future generations. If these parties are not satisfied with the companys efforts and actions, Riordan may be at risk for potential failure.Competitive Advantages and StrategiesRiordan presently utilizes an industry standard Six Sigma competitive strategy, along with their customization of innovative products and bargain of quality items to a select market of specialized buyers. The manufacturer also takes advantage of high-volume action methods to bewilder elevated profits. Th ey provide plastic products, including bottles, fans, heart valves, medical stents, and custom parts, to customers in bulk amounts at low- legal injuryd prices to sustain the companys revenue stream. Riordan also has a revolving product line, which creates value and sustainability because the products are recycled. These competitive advantages helped Riordan become an industry leader, yet the integration of a differentiation strategy and a commence terms strategy will work to enhance organizational growth. Riordan can improve innovation and sustainability of business operations in the United States and in the global market by implementing a blend of differentiation and lower woo business strategies.This arrangement is ideal for Riordan because it caters to the purpose of the manufacturing business, which is to provide valuable products at reasonable costs. Wheelen and Hunger (2010) explain that differentiation strategy is the ability of a company to provide unique and superior v alue to the buyer in terms of product quality, special features, or after-sale service and lower cost strategy is the ability of a company or a business unit to design, produce, and market a corresponding product more efficiently than its competitors (p. 185).The combination of these two exceedingly effective competitive strategies allows Riordan to introduce innovative and distinct plastic products to themarketplace, creating greater value to customers, in a more efficient and cost-effective modal value than competitors. To further guarantee organizational longevity, Riordan should continue to use existing quality improvement processes such as Six Sigma and Total Quality Management, which focus on cost reduction, quality improvement, customer satisfaction, executing improvement, and revenant re advancedal.Measurement GuidelinesUsing a combination of differentiation and lower cost strategies in the Riordan strategic planning process will help the organization maximize profits thro ugh two avenues. The first elbow room the company will adjust the organizational strategy is by using differentiation to sell military capability products to organizations that are willing to pay higher prices for persuasiveness orders. refreshful innovation will increase the gross revenue of the organization. Riordan will use a return on investment (ROI) measurement as a road map to verify the effectiveness of the innovation strategy. The ROI measurement will look at the profitability of each specialty order and jell if the products are creating enough revenue for the organization. If the products are not meeting a set revenue target goal, then the organization will increase the customers cost.The second way Riordan will calm the organizations growth and maximize profits is by using a lower cost strategy. The organization will maintain the existing customer base by selling cat valium plastic products at lower rates. The primary plastic products in this category are beverage bottles, food containers, and common automobile parts. The organization will use a match scorecard approach to verify strategic effectiveness of the lower cost strategy. The fit scorecard will focus on four main strategic goals to determine effectiveness. The first goal is customer satisfaction. Satisfying the customers needs will keep profits growing. The second goal is financial stability and profitability. Financial stability will appearance stakeholders the company is strong and dependable. This encourages more business from other organizations in the future.The third goal in the balanced scorecard approach is internal perspective. Management will look at successes and failures within the organization and determine corrective actions to improve the organization. The fourth step is innovation and learning within the organization. Managers will look at cranial orbits that are not meeting the strategicgoals and determine improvements to the strategic plan. The management team w ill also evaluate ways to improve value of products and ways to cut cost of production. By using the ROI and balanced scorecard guidelines, Riordans managers can effectively evaluate the effectiveness of the organizational strategy. This will allow managers to determine if the strategies are successful in their current form or if adjustments are needed to improve production or profitability standards.Internal dynamicsFor Riordan to implement the new business strategies, the internal dynamics of the organization must change. These changes will affect the conclusion and structural leadership of the company. Riordans current management social organization is a matrix structure using the old method management. This means that longevity in the organization is a stipulation for management situation. Each level of manager is put in a come in and the hypothesise is made to fit the campaigner. The company will keep the current matrix structure in place with one major difference. In the new internal dynamics of the company, the requirements of the job determine the eligibility of candidates. New job placement processes will cause the cultural environment to change within the organization. Employees, whom may be waiting for older workers to leave the company, will find it easier to move into new positions without the wait. The most qualified candidate will be eligible for the positions, instead of employees relying on longevity.This type of organizational movement will stir innovation through education by placing fresh candidates in leadership positions. This will also help the company avoid downturns in innovation and growth. Organizational managers must determine if the new business strategy will fit the current culture. If the strategy does not fit, managers must decide how to implement the strategy by making changes in the structure. According to Wheelen and Hunger (2010), the management team can try one of four methods to adjust the culture. The strategy maker s can take a chance and ignore the culture, manage around the culture by changing the plan, change the culture to fit the plan, or change the strategy to fit the culture (Wheelen and Hunger, 2010, p. 256). The new organizational business strategy must have the support of the stakeholders to which the changes will affect because a failure to plan and adjust the business strategy effectively could result in failure of the carrying into action process.Business ContinuityBusiness persistency are the activities performed by an organization to ensure that the business functions will be available when needed by customers, suppliers, regulators, and others of Riordan that must have access to those particular functions. Business continuity is performed by members of the company such as management, employees, and its stakeholders. The business functions and continuity at Riordan consist of project management, system backups, change controls, and the help desk. These functions help Riordan maintain service, consistency, and recoverability within the organization. Riordan influences business continuity by supporting items in their mission statement.The influences are geared by Six Sigma and R&D, which is the industry leader in recognition of industry trends. Riordans business is also influenced by ISO 9000 standards that define the companys attitude and abilities. long-run customer relationships and team oriented working environments are significant businesses influences of this company. With a continual focus on achievement and maintaining profitability to ensure sustained growth, financial and human capital availability are identify as ongoing strategic goals and objectives.Assessment and Feedback ControlsRiordan provides its employees with well informed and properly supported information that focuses on the long-term viability of the company. The perspicacity and feedback controls that should be acknowledged in determining the direction for Riordan in the propos ed strategic plan are as follows. The assessments will ensure that Riordan examines employee motivation and empowerment, manufacturing and marketing areas, and the structure of performance reviews. Once these areas are assessed, then the feedback process will begin. The management feedback process consists of making sure employees are still universe recognized as team players as Riordan is changing the strategy of the company. Providing employees coaching sessions to identify problem areas, implementation of career development opportunities, and instituting a pay rewards system for good performance that supports the companys heap will provide direct feedback to the company.At Riordan, product quality and quantity is a major focus. Establishing an evaluation, control, and assessment process will provide timely feedback to leadershipin anticipation of results or areas of concern. Areas of assessment include employee and customer satisfaction, environmental presence, and environmenta l scanning for external locations of the manufacturing facilities. Instituting assessment and feedback to determine the profitability and feasibility of the company is established through the strategic process. Management will determine and specify what measurements are necessary, establish standards of performance through specific implementations, measure performance by predetermined controls, and compare want performance within a tolerance range. Should the performance fall outside of the predetermined tolerance range, leadership will have the ability to take immediate corrective action. Companies may experience fluctuation or desired standards not being achieved. This provides the company with an opportunity to take corrective action and re-evaluate the strategic plan.Should Riordans strategic plan fluctuate or not achieve predetermined goals as according to plan, management would consider change the specific strategy. Some of the changes to be considered are based on the feedb ack, but may include the competitive strategies, measurement guidelines, and internal dynamics. These areas provide opportunities for improvement but could also reflect similarities to the original plan with diminished adjustments and still provide successful outcomes. Alterations of the strategic plan would be evaluation of Competitive Strategies In the area of competitive strategies, we will limit the high-volume production methods and not add any new innovation.Measurement Guidelines In the area of measurement guidelines, we will eliminate the differentiation to sell specialty products to organizations for a higher price which leads to return on investment. Riordan will focus on maintaining the product line that already exists. Internal Dynamics In the area of internal dynamics, Riordan could not go forward with the new changes to the company culture and job placement process. Only a few minor adjustments are needed for this particular area. Job placement should be considered upon experience and the company culture should remain the same. If Riordan fails to make these corrections prior to implementation of the new strategic plan, the company could be at risk of losing market share, not having the ability of expanding globally, jeopardizing the relationship with stakeholders, and flake out of profitability.ConclusionCompanies are respected and rated by their ethical and social responsibilities to the stakeholders and employees. These responsibilities are as important as the ROI. The purpose of business is to make a return on investment, and this factor is used to evaluate the performance of management and offers a market comparison to similar firms and industries. Key performance measures are essential for achieving the desired strategic outcome. A comprehensive plan that includes environmental scanning, strategy formulation, strategy implementation, and evaluation and control processes will provide assurance of a well-developed strategic approach to b usiness strategies and growth initiatives.ReferencesApollo Group, Inc. (2004). Virtual Organization Riordan Manufacturing. Retrieved from Apollo Group, Inc., Simulation, MGT498 Strategic Management website. Merriam-Webster, Incorporated (2011). Ethic. Retrieved from http//www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ethics. Wheelen, T. L., & Hunger, J. D. (2010). Concepts in strategic management and business policy Achieving sustainability (12th ed.). Prentice Hall.

Cell phone use while driving: a literature review and recommendations Essay

1. Introduction electric carrelular mobilizeular tele bring forwards ( booth visit reverbe stations) were premier(prenominal) introduced in the unify States in the mid-1980s, and their c solely has since experienced explosive growth. Today there ar much than 262 zillion prison carrel ear promise subscribers, representing 84 per centum of the United States population. cubicleular tele bring forward address strait technology has bring very intentionful for people on the move, which is demonstrated by vignettes that yield that the majority of practice sessionrs account development their call ups trance witticismish. jail cubicle knell do by tot one woods, although difficult to quantify, has been approximated finished observational entropy by the federal government at six pct of device drivers in 2007 (IIHS, 2006).This rate means that at any moment during the day, one million passenger fomites in the United State argon be goaded by people on h and-held jail booth bids. Further analysis of these statistics show that women ar to a greater extent than app arnt to be on their mobilises duration unprompted eight naval division of women physical exercise cell bring forwards fleck control comp bed to five pct of their male counterparts. Also of importance, this entropy piece that upstart drivers (16-24 age old) were intimately probably to be on their cell shout outs at 10 pct comp ard to six percent of those aged 2569 and one percent of drivers 70 and older (see Figure 1).Public perception of the dangers of cell phone make use of speckle crusade seems to coincide with prevalent sense datum and experience, tho common practice does not. In a survey through by Nationwide Insurance (IIHS, 2008), quartette out of five surveyed cell phone owners admitted to control succession trouble. Even though most half of the surveyed people consider cell phone use to be the most dangerous disturbance, 98 perce nt of the drivers consider themselves to be unassail qualified drivers. An interesting gist of the survey was that almost two-thirds of cell phone owners say they were expected by family, friends or holders to alship trickal be r for each oneable by phone or other(a) communication device. Among youthfulness drivers in this survey, 40 percent said they send or read text messages along with other activities plot of ground control in order to remain connected (IIHS, 2008).Another survey of only young drivers conducted by State Farm Insurance, plunge that only 25 percent viewed cell phone use small-arm hotheaded as dangerous. Almost 80 percent, however, recognized that texting on cell phones magic spell impulsive was unassured (IIHS, 2008). The rate at which young drivers are most likely to be using cell phones fleck movement force, along with their attitude towards the perceived peril of using such devices, is concerning because this host is al assemble at the highe st assay for conflicts heretofore without these distractions.A survey conducted by AAA and S veritable(a)teen magazine found that 46 percent of drivers 16 and 17 eld old said that they text message while ride force. This is a silent statistic because 37 percent of the same(p) teenagers said that they believed that text messaging was the most dangerous driver distraction (Quain, 2007).2. Quantifying cadre anticipate Usage and Crash Risk drivers attentiveness has been a concern since the invention of the move. As technology enlarges, the number of driver distractions growings. Each year, to a greater extent than 42,000 people are killed, to a greater extent than 3 million are injured, and more than than 6 million conflicts occur on roads in the United States (IIHS, 2006). Estimates arouse attri only whened amid 30-50 percent of collisions to distracted drivers, resulting in huge amount of societal cost (Cohen, 2003). Although common sense and experience tells us that using cell phones while impetuous is dangerous, a number of studies are put on to quantifying the take away run a jeopardy associated with using a cell phone while private road. Since the mid-1990s, around 120 studies make up move to validate a common conception using a cell phone while madcap is a distraction and therefore increases friction seek (IIHS, 2008).The books on this subject investigates non-homogeneous relationships amidst cell phone use and disaster risk. These studies can be separated into tierce common groups epidemiological studies, experi noetic studies, and real-world studies. Epidemiological studies examine real-world accident selective study and cell phone records to draw closures establish on the relationship between the two. Behavioral and experimental studies attempt to measurement some cognitive action of cell phone use on normal driving functions such as visual attention, quest distance, reaction metre, and other driving taxs. Real-w orld studies attempt to show how real-world situations either justify or disprove the other info.Before discussing selected studies, a summary of the general conclusions from each type of field is presented below(a) Epidemiological Studies Studies that snap the relationship between cell phone use and increase crash risk using lineament studies where people film been in actual accident. Researchers have cogitated that the use of cell phones while driving importantly increases the risk of collision (Ontario Medical draw, 2008).(b) observational and Behavioral Studies These studies have been able to demonstrate that having a conversation on a cell phone is cognitively distracting and causes debasement in driving comeance. These studies similarly confirm the finding of the epidemiological studies that when driving transaction is affected negatively, an increase crash risk is spy (Ontario Medical Association, 2008).(c) Real-World Studies These studies are observations of tes t subjects that are superintended while in the field. Conclusions are drawn ground on the observed data and are a reflection of actual events. The real-world studies have be that the single most dangerous driver distraction is cell phone use.2.1 Epidemiological StudiesEpidemiological studies have attempted to measure the association of cell phone use with the risk of collision. They examine accident data and cell phone records to bear a correlation, resulting in a relationship between cell phone use and accident risk. The spare-time activity review focuses on three epidemiological studies that indicate cell phone use is associated with an increase risk of collision. 2.1.1 cellular telephoneular Phones and work Accidents, 1996In an ahead of time playing field in 1996, Violanti and Marshall apply a case-controlled bod study where they selected 100 random drivers that had been involved in crashes in the previous two years and compared them against another group of 100 rando mly selected drivers who had not been involved in crashes in the previous 10 years. The study adjudicated that using a cell phone for 50 minutes per month resulted in a collision risk 5.59 times greater than not using a cell phone at all. In this study, the risk ratio is statisti come up toy significant, save the confidence pay backs were large.The obvious limitations of this study are (1) small number of cell phone users in the sample (2) selection bias and (3) lack of evince that the cell phone users were using their phones at the time of the collision. 2.1.2 Association between Cellular Telephone Calls and repulse Vehicle Collisions, 1997 Redelmeier and Tibshirani (1997) conducted the most quoted epidemiological study of cell phone use and increased crash risk in 1997. This search was a case cross-over design, where each subject served as his/her own control.The study include 699 drivers who had been involved in a collision and who owned cell phones. The authors apply fiv e-minute intervals of time before the time of the collision, and compared those against the same time on the previous day. The authors were able to conclude that the risk of collision was approximately four times higher(prenominal) than when the same subjects were not using their cell phones. The only significant limitation to this study is that collision times are estimated. on that point exists the supposition that cell phone use was a post-collision call instead of a pre-collision call. The authors make a conscious effort to eliminate calls that were precipitated by the collision by identifying 9-1-1 calls and through thorough questioning of the drivers. 2.1.3 Wire slight Telephones and the Risk of Road Accidents, 2001 Laberge and Nadeau conducted an epidemiological study in Quebec in 2001. This study was found on a self-reported questionnaire from a sample of 36,079 participants, of which 35 percent had records with cellular cry providers.Taking into account only age and year of observation, cell phone users had a 38 percent higher risk of collisions than non-users. Including additional constraints, such as miles control and driving habits increased the relative risk by 11 percent for males and 21 percent for females. The authors also applied the case cross-over design used by Redelmeier and Tibshirani to their data. This system produced a relative risk of being in a crash while using a cell phone at 5.13 times that of a non-user. However, the authors concluded that this case cross-over design over-estimates the risk, and heady that a more realistic risk of collision is around 1.3-1.4 times that of a non-user.2.2 Experimental and Behavioral StudiesThe majority of the literature reports on experimental and behavior studies examine the impact of cell phone use on the cognitive functions necessary for driving. Many of the experimental studies have cor link how cell phone use, including hands-free devices, while driving interferes with or degrades variou s aspects of driving. Because of the quantity of experimental and behavioral studies, only representative research is reviewed in the following four categories (1) Field-of-View Studies (2) question Research Studies (3) Simulator Studies and (4) Benchmark Impairment Studies. 2.2.1 Field of View StudiesIn 2003, strayers reseach group at the University of Utah found that drivers who use cell phones are less able to process visual information. Based on the observations of participants in a simulator, the study was able to conclude that drivers conversing on cell phones increase their risk of collisions. The researchers attributed the increase in collision risk to a opening called Inattention Blindness. Inattention Blindness is summarized to be, Even when participants drivers are directing their gaze at objects in the driving environment, they whitethorn fail to see them because attention is directed elsewhere.The study also found that the use of hands-free and hand-held cell phones equally impair the drivers dexterity to see objects. The study found that the disruptive effects of cell phone conversations on driving are over overdue in a large part to the diversion of attention from driving to the phone conversation. This diversion of attention also affects the drivers ability to react to sudden event placing pedestrians and others at increased risk for injury (Strayer, 2003).In 2005, researchers from the Japanese Automobile Research represent set ahead examined the findings from the University of Utah report. The authors of this report agreed with the conclusions of the earlier report, but felt that a more direct assessment of the visual attention needed to be done to identify the exact amount of diversion from what the driver is looking at to the cell phone conversation. The authors conducted experiments with drivers on a simulator using the medically known physiological response Binocular Fusion.The results of this study show that, engaging in hands-fre e phone conversation interferes with visual information processing. The increment of binocular gaze dissociation by conversing on a phone indicates that the drivers attention is diverted from the external view to the conversation. The purpose of the report was not necessarily to prove that speaking on a cell phone increases crash risk, but this relationship is inferred by the authors (Uchida, 2005). Figure 2 is extracted from Woods field-of-view study in 2006 that obtained similar results as the studies mentioned above. It demonstrates the number of errors drivers made while listening and responding to questions went up dramatically when compared against no distractions.2.2.2 Brain Research StudiesA 2005 Study by GM Corp., Wayne State University Medical School, and Henry Ford hospital set a foundation for perceptiveness how cell phone use by a driver submits the head function. This study used available magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and Magnetoencephalography (MEG) to locat e essential wag activated structures and their corresponding dynamics. As discussed above, field-of-view studies for the most part depend on behavior observations to determine if the mind is cogitate on the road and thus fail to completely reflect what the hit may actually be doing.The authors suggest that there are situations where behavioral forefingers will show that the mind is on the road, but in reality, it is not. With this understanding, the authors set out to uncover the exact neural mechanisms that are associated with distracted behaviors while driving. Putting participants in a simulator and monitoring their brain function, the authors were able to identify the major brain pathways involved in driving and distracted driving. This study set a foundation for determining and measuring how the brain reacts to distracted driving ( schoolgirlish, 2005).In 2007, researchers at Carnegie Mellon University conducted a study make headwaying the previous study by using Function al Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) to investigate the impact of concurrent auditive language inclusion on the brain action at legality when simultaneously exposed to a simulated driving experience. Participants operated a driving simulator, either composed or while listening to realmments they had to identify as true or false. This auditory language comprehension was knowing to mimic talking on a cell phone.The participants brain occupation was monitored during the simulations and was compared against the MRI scans of the undisturbed drivers brain. The authors found that when participants experienced the dual-task jibe, mental resources were taken away from eye sockets of the brain that deal with driving tasks (see Figure 3). This occurred even though the areas of the brain that deal with driving tasks and auditory comprehension are contrasting. The authors were able to make two conclusion based on their experimental data (1) mental resources are diverted from driving tas ks to 5auditory comprehension regardless of other physical tasks and (2) the deterioration of driving slaying occurs because of a competition of mental resources in the brain between driving tasks and auditory comprehension (Just, 2008).Figure 3 Percentage Change in Signal Intensity for Five Functional Groupings of Cortical Areas (Source Just, 2008) Spatial processing areas significantly cliff with the addition of the sentence listening task.2.2.3 Simulator StudiesIn 2001, Strayers research group at the University of Utah submitted test subjects to different levels of distractions while driving in a simulator. The researchers were able to conclude that cellular phone conversations while driving caused the subjects to react shadowyer to stimuli and perform tasks with considerably boil downd precision. Specifically, while engaged in cell phone conversations the subjects were twice as likely to miss simulated work steers compared to when they were not distracted.These results wer e also qualified by showing that talking on a cell phone was more dangerous than when the driver was subjected to common in-vehicle distractions, such as the piano tuner and books-on-tape. The researchers also cute to determine if the reason the subjects missed the work symptoms was because they did not see them or because they were slow to respond to them. To determine this, the researchers examined the memory of the subjects later on normal driving as well as distracted driving. The results indicated clear memory impairment afterward having been engaged in cell phone conversations.The researchers were able to conclude that active participation in a cell phone conversation while driving stop driving performance by diverting attention from driving tasks to a cognitive process. In a 2002 observational study by the Insurance Corporation of British Columbia, researchers used a complex method acting of identifying specific cell phone users and non-users through in-field observati ons, and linking these people with their driving records. This method presents some obvious limitations or uncertainty approximately the user classification however, the results corresponded well with other identifying methods.The driving records of the cell phone users had higher counts of moving violation citations over the previous four years, to include repairing, alcohol, failure to use seat belts, rough driving violations, and non-moving violations. Although the correlation between these violations and use of a cell phone is not scientifically proven by this study, it does likely reflect a difference in lifestyle, attitude and personality of the typical cell phone users indicating they are inherently riskier drivers (Wilson, 2003).These simulator studies are consistent with a self-report survey conducted by the Traffic fault Research Foundation. The authors of this report determined that people who use cell phones while driving were more likely to have get under ones sk ind a traffic ticket in the last year, drive after drinking, and to drive greater quantities of alcohol when they drink. Again, these behavioral indicators cannot necessarily be right away linked to cell phone use rather, they suggest a personality type who frequently uses a cell phone while driving (Beirness, 2002).2.2.4 Benchmark Impairment StudiesInnumerable studies have been able to prove the correlation between cell phone use while driving and an increased risk of crashing when compared to normal driving. What these studies have failed to do is show a parity to known impairment levels. There have been at least three studies that compare the cell phone driver to a drunk driver at the per-se blood-alcohol concentration limit of 0.08 wt/vol. This blood alcohol concentration has been thoroughly studied and quantified as the limit at which the average driver will become incapable of safely operating a motor vehicle. Comparing the cell phone driver to a benchmark of this caliber b ecomes a solid comparison and explanation to how dangerous driving while on a cell phone really is.In a 2002 study by Burns et al., the authors de subscribe a study to compare the impairment from handsfree and hand-held phone conversations to the decline in driving performance caused by alcohol impairment. Participants were given either an alcoholic beverage or a placebo drink and lay in front of a driving simulator that represented realistic driving tasks.The quantity of alcohol was determined from the participants age and body mass, and was closely correlated with the legal limit of .08 mg/ml blood alcohol concentration. The results of this experiment showed a clear substantial decrease in driving performance when using a hand-held phone, in comparison to the blue condition. driving force performance under the influence of alcohol was significantly worse than normal driving, but better than driving while using a phone, leading to a conclusion that driving while talking on a pho ne is more impairing then driving at the legal limit of alcohol.Strayers research group at the University of Utah published research comparing the cell phone driver and the drunk driver in 2003, and a revised report in 2006. The purpose of their research was to provide a direct comparison of the driving performance of a cell phone driver and an alcohol impaired driver in a controlled laboratory setting. These researchers used participants who were casual drinkers and compared their own sober driving, cell phone driving, and alcohol-impaired driving to themselves. This method of control seems to be more holy than the previous studies process of comparing the same situations in different subjects. The researchers were able to conclude that both the intoxicated driver and the cell phone drivers driving profiles were different from the sober base-line.Cell phone drivers exhibited a delay in their response to events, had longer following distances, took longer to convalesce lost speed following braking, and were involved in more traffic accidents. Drivers in the intoxicated condition exhibited a more aggressive driving profile by following closer to the vehicle in front of them and braking harder. The researchers suggest the data indicates impairment or risk from cell phone use is as great as that of the intoxicated driver, but in different ways. The authors also noted that driving impairments associated with hands-free devices and hand-held devices were not significantly different, indicating that the impairment comes from a diversion of attention from the processing of normal driving tasks.2.3 Real-World Studies some(prenominal) real-world studies have been conducted and are being conducted to further validate the epidemiological and experimental studies. Our review indicates that the majority of these studies are funded in part by policy companies or makers of driving performance enhancers. The most commonly cited real-world study involved 100 cars and 42,000 hours of driving time monitored by in-vehicle cameras and sensors over a one-year period. The study was conducted by the Virginia Tech Transportation Institute in 2006, and concluded that, secondary task distractions were the prime factor in collisions.The single biggest distraction leading to collisions was cell phone conversations, dialing, and sending text messages. The Virginia Tech Transportation Institute is conducting another study that involves 2500 drivers and will last three years (Bunkley). We have been able to identify several(prenominal) other current real-world studies that are underway. The studies are funded originally by restitution companies, and we have been unable to obtain any information well-nigh them due to proprietary reasons (Olson, 2007 Robinson, 2008).2.4 Police Accident ReportsSince the studies prove the hypothesis that cell phone use while driving increases crash risk, quantitative analysis of crash causation data should reflect this. This, however, i s not the case. The reasons that the real-world data does not match the experimental and epidemiological conclusions are due primarily to two factors. First, three states in 2001 and six states in 2002 provided a specific space on their identical crash reports to indicate that the use of a cell phone had been involved in the collision. In addition, even with a space available on a police report to record cell phone pastime, the box may or may not be marked.The investigating incumbent has multiple responsibilities at an accident scene, including tending to injured, restoring traffic flow, completing the investigation, and issuing citations for criminal violations. Officer discretion plays a part in the completion of police reports even if evidence of cell phone use is present, the officer may or may not indicate that cell phone use was a factor in the collision. A NHTSA study of northwestern Carolina supports this analysis. The study concluded that the underreporting of crashes t hat are a result of inattention due to cell phone use is substantial.The portion of crashes that were reported to be due to inattention because of cell phone use was 1.5 percent which is significantly below the estimated cheer obtained in more comprehensive studies of 3050 percent (Cohen, 2003). Second, even if the collection of this data is a requirement for every state, it would likely still be inaccurate because of the habituals reluctance to report cell phone use to police.Because the risks of using cell phones while driving are becoming commonly known and more states are adopting laws to outlaw the use of cell phones while driving, the likelihood that an offender admit to using a cell phone to a police officer becomes less. In addition, a police officers reasonable investigation time does not set aside for a comprehensive investigation of every crash to include determining the use of cell phones. This is more likely to be reserved for very serious crashes where serious injur y and or impairment of life were present.To attend address the underreporting of crashes that are due to cell phone use, several federal agencies, national organizations, and state and local governments have worked to improve the data collection. In 2003, the national Governors Highway Safety Association released a revised edition of the Model Minimum Uniform Crash Criteria (MMUCC), which included changes that would help record the number of crashes associated with distracted driving.The changes, which were developed with the help of NHTSAS, the Federal Highway Administration, the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration, and numerous state and local agencies, define the information that should be collected at an accident scene. Included in the impertinent criteria is that reports should include any information regarding distracted driving. The changes are designed to facilitate more accurate reporting of distracted driving, which in turn, will give policy makers and data anal ysts more concrete data from which to make conclusions (Sundeen, 2004).The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) has also taken aim at the fuss of cell phone use and its underreporting. In a press release in 2006, the NTSB acknowledged that cell phone use by drivers results in a cognitive distraction that leads to an increase in accident rates. The same press release suggested that the remain 20 states that at the time did not have driver distraction codes on their uniform accident reports add them (National Transporation Safety Board, 2006). In 2008, the NTSB made a press release that again emphasized the dangers of cell phone use by drivers by citing research conclusion that such activity reduces driving performance. The press release also indicated that the NTSB had added cell phone restrictions by commercial drivers to its 2009 list of most wanted preventative improvements (National Transportaion Safety Board, 2008).3. Cell Phones and teenagedage Driver3.1 Teen Drivers Collision Statistics Teen drivers are alarmingly prevalent in the collision statistics. In 2005, 4,544 teens ages 16 to 19 died of injuries sustained in motor vehicle crashes. In the same year, almost 400,000 motor vehicle occupants in this age group were hospitalized from injuries sustained in automobile crashes. Overall in 2005, teenagers accounted for 7 percent of the driving population, but they account for 14 percent of all fatalities. Young people ages 15-24 represent 14 percent of the U.S. population, but account for 30 percent of the motor vehicle injuries. The most concerning age group is the 16-19 year olds. Drivers in this age group are three times more likely to be killed in an automobile crash than people 25-64 years old (Lynch). As shown in Figure 4, crash risk is particularly high during the first 6 months of un supervise licensure (Lee, 2007).Understanding exactly why young drivers are so overly represented in the crash statistics is difficult to isolate, in parti cular while the interactions between young drivers and new technology remains mostly unexplored. Even so, it is safe to conclude from the research that new drivers have difficulty with driving because of inexperience, risk-taking behavior, immaturity, and risk exposure (Lynch). Driving is a divided attention task requiring the driver to multi-task, which is a skill that one improves with experience. This is demonstrated also by figure four in the difference between the novice and learners (supervised) crash rates. The difference in crash rate is probably due to the restriction of exposure to fantastic situations and aid that is provided from the adult passenger assisting in much of themulti-tasking requirements.Figure 4 Crash rates for drivers under the supervision of an adult and during the first months of independent driving. (Source Lee, 2007)A study by the Brain Trust Alliance published in 2006 suggests a possible explanation for why young drivers are overrepresented in crashes . The researchers found that the human brain continues to develop well past childhood into early adulthood, reaching maturity at around age 25 (see Figure 5). Different parts of the brain fully develop at different times. Specifically, the prefrontal cortex and parietal lobe are areas of the brain that are still developing through adolescence and the teen years. The prefrontal cortex controls planning, working memory, organization, risk management, self obstruction and emotional control.The parietal lobe controls spatial perception and vision which gives the ability to interpret stance, speed and distance. The researchers concluded that understanding the brain development is valuable in understanding why young drivers are at risk and the limitations that should be placed on them to reduce the risk. Specifically, the researchers suggest that the time young drivers are under supervised driving needs to be extended to give them the time they need to comprehend the risks of driving an d responses for common driving situations.3.2 Teen Driver and Cell Phone DistractionsTechnological distractions that tend to distract drivers, such as making phone calls, watching videos, corresponding through email, text messaging, and selecting and listening to music, are become more prolific and are alarmingly most popular with the younger drivers. All of these technologies have the ability to distract the driver however the cell phone has attracted the most attention.Text messaging among young driver is especially alarming since 46 percent of drivers 16-17 years old admitted to driving while texting and since it not only requires cognitive resources, but it takes eyes off the road (Quain, 2007). In a 2007 study at the University of Iowa, the researchers concluded rough young drivers that, A high rate of early adoption of new technology, peer pressure, risk-taking tendencies, poor ability to detect and anticipate hazardous situations, and underdeveloped vehicle controls kills al l leave young drivers particularly unguarded to the distractions posed by the change magnitude variety of infotainment systems (Lee, 2007).3.3 Supervised Driving and Parental InvolvementYoung drivers, especially those recently licensed, who use cell phones compound their risks intervention of some type is needed. A survey conducted by Allstate in February 2007 of parents of teen drivers found the followingMost parents (55 percent) said they wished they had more time to discover driving safety to their teens.Parents have the ability to influence their teen childrens driving in ways that no one else can. The Allstate survey shows that parents feel that teaching children how to drive safely is their responsibility and wish they had more time to teach and supervise their children. Graduated Drivers Licenses, a broadcast to facilitate more parental involvement in a newly licensed teens driving development, are becoming more common throughout the United States. These alone, however, ar e proving to be insufficient to reduce the increased crash rate of young drivers.Teen driving contracts have been emphasized in some states as a way for parents to passively cite interest in their teens driving behavior. A teen driving contract typically is a signed contract between parent and a teen that specifies the rules, expectations, and responsibilities for safe driving. A typical safe driving agreement covers cell phone use while driving, speeding, driving at night, carrying passengers, as well as seatbelt use. The privileges set out in the teen driving contracts are designed to be reviewed periodically and may be updated depending on how the parents feel the teen is performing (Michigan Secretary of State, 2007).4. Legislative Attempts to Prevent Driver Cell Phone UseAlthough young drivers present a particularly urgent situation when it comes to cell phone use while driving, the issue is also a risky one for adult drivers. Either way, the literature and research suggest t hat something needs to be done to reduce the loss of life and money associated with cell phone use while driving. Numerous efforts are underway to keep drivers safe, including efforts from federal, state, and local agencies, parent groups, and schools. Governments have made various attempts through legislation to outlaw the use of cell phones while driving. This review has identify three reports on legislative efforts designed to help reduce crashes resulting from cell phone use and they are presented below4.1 New York State 2001 Hand-Held Cell Phone BanIn 2001, New York became the first state to adopt a law that bans the use of hand-held cell phone devices by all drivers. Prior to the law, the rate of drivers using cell phones was observed at 2.3 percent. Immediately after to several months after the enactment of the law, the observed cell phone use dropped by approximately 50 percent to 1.1 percent. By March of 2003, the rate of cell phone use had risen back up to2.1 percent which almost matches that of the pre-ban rate. Between December of 2001 and January of 2003, only about two percent of the traffic citations issued in New York were for cell phone use even though a survey conducted by NHTSA of New York drivers showed that 30 percent admitted to still using their phones while driving. A possibility for the decline in military strength is the decline in media attention and enforcement since its inception (IIHS, 2003).4.2 territorial dominion of Columbia Distracted Driving Safety Act of 2005 In July 2005, the District of Columbia enacted the Distracted Driving Safety Act which prohibits all forms of inattentive driving that result in the unsafe operation of a motor vehicle including hand-held cell phones. Prior to the law, the rate of drivers using cell phones was observed at 6.1 percent. Shortly after the law took effect, the usage rate dropped to 3.5 percent. Interestingly, when the usage rate was measured a year after the law it had risen to four perce nt, but was still significantly lower than the preban rate.The introduction of this law also followed the typical pattern where a new law is introduced, configuration is at its highest and as time passes, the compliance drops off. Although the rise in usage a year after the introduction of the law was not as significant as that of the New York ban, it was still present. One possibility for this less significant return to pre-ban usage levels is the District of Columbias reputation for strict enforcement (McCartt, 2007).4.3 North Carolina Under 18 Ban of Mobile Communication Devices In December 2006, North Carolina enacted a law that prohibited the use of any mobile communication device by drivers younger than 18 years old. Cell phone usage was observed at high schools prior to the law and five months after the law took effect. The cell phone usage prior to the law was observed at 11 percent. Cell phone usage five months after the law took effect was observedat 11.8 percent. As a co ntrol, cell phone usage in the adjacent state of South Carolina was observed over the same period of time and cell phone use there was steady at 13 percent over the observation time. Researchers conducted interviews of teen drivers in which 50 percent of the surveyed teens reported using their cell phones (post-ban) if they had driven the day prior to the survey. The conclusion of the researchers was that the cell phone law had little effect on teenage drivers use of cell phones (Foss, 2008).5. Distance-Based Insurance PolicesKeeping drivers safe behind the wheel is becoming an ever increasing priority as evidenced by the some(prenominal) another(prenominal) new and innovative approaches to the problem. Solutions are being sought-after(a) and in some cases found in areas of science, engineering, biomechanics, state-of-the-art safety designs, etc. The following review is based on a relatively new insurance concept called distance-based insurance. Vehicle insurance is typically base d on a lump sum set method which translates to a fixed cost for each consumer regardless of how many miles a vehicle is driven.A lump-sum insurance policy will result in the same premium across a similar demographic, assuming that other aspects such as age, gender, location, driving records, etc. are the same. Consumers will not see any reduction in price if they reduce their yearly mileage which results in lower risk. Since the risk of collision and other policy claim related losses are dependent on how many miles the vehicle is driven, it seems unfair to apply a lump-sum pricing scheme to such a complex situation (Bordoff, 2008).In a paper written by Litman (1997) he makes a profound analogy of this situation to the sales agreement of gasoline. If gasoline was sold by the car-year, vehicle owners would be required to make one lump-sum payment at the beginning of the year. This payment would allow the owner to fill the vehicle up with gasoline unlimited times throughout the year. Prices would be based on the average consumers use of gasoline in his/her demographic. Litman suggests that this unlimited distribution of gasoline would perpetuate an increase in fuel usage resulting in more miles driven, overall vehicle costs, congestion, pollution and increased accident risk. Consumers who use less fuel than the average would find the system wholly unfair and unaffordable and would not use it. Consumers who used more than the average would be in favor of the system because of the benefits it offers them.This system is obviously unreasonable, and anecdotally explains the limitations of our current lump-sum insurance system. In response to this problem, a new distance-based insurance pricing method has been suggested and is being implemented in some places. Distance based insurance policies are variable and are based on the vehicle-miles driven instead of the current practice of lump-sum policies. These policies are designed to better reflect the risk of consumers , since claims are broadly proportional to miles driven (Bordoff, 2008). Figure 6 represents the average 2003 distribution of expenditures for ownership of an automobile in the United States. The percentage paid in insurance costs is 21 percent, a significant 13amount. The benefits of distance-based insurance policies are many, but most importantly is that they more accurately reflect the customers mileage-based risk and give many consumers an opportunity to proportionally reduce their insurance rates.Figure 6 Average 2003 Distribution of Expenditures for Automobile monomania in The United States. (Litman, 1997)Similar to how distance-based insurance pricing has revolutionized the way insurance premiums are being evaluated, safety-based driving systems can revolutionize how driving habits are reflected in insurance premiums. For example, cell phone use while driving increased the risk of collision. If a driver were to voluntarily participate in a program that restricted his/her ce ll phone use while driving, thereby reducing his/her risk of collision, that behavior could be rewarded by a lower insurance premium. This same methodology could be applied to any risky driving practice (i.e. speeding, teen driving at night, etc.) as reported to an insurance company through reliable technological methods.This, much like distance-based policies, would more accurately reflect the consumers safety risk and could result in lower insurance rates. Those who choose not to participate in the program would have to get hold of the average risk and associated premiums. This programwould be a huge incentive for people to participate and later on drive safely.6. Technological Methods for Improving Driving Safety6.1. Active Safety Features through Vehicle-to-Vehicle and Vehicle-to-Infrastructure Comm. To help block car accidents and minimize harmful effects of accidents, many automotive manufacturers aim to provide active safety features such as forward-looking speed radar, au topilot systems, lane departure warnings, integration of video cameras, collision alerts, situational consciousness systems, active headlights, and vehicle-to-vehicle communications to name a few. The radar-based system can be used to help avoid or mitigate the effect of front-end collisions. A number of systems focus on how to utilize radio receiver vehicle-to-infrastructure communications to provide early warnings to drivers about potential hazards at intersections, where 40 percent of all traffic accidents and 20 percent of crash-related fatalities occur.Specific technologies designed to mitigate the use of cell phones by drivers are generally marketed toward the young driver because that is where the largest concern for safety is, as well as where the most potential improvements can be made. It is also the primary market because often these technologies require voluntary involvement where parents are more likely to involve their children than themselves. These devices are, rela tively speaking, in their infancy. Many devices on the market seem to privately employ a portion of what is needed to be a complete and effective system, but each has its limitations.6.2. GPS-based Driving Monitoring SystemExamples of a technologies used to monitor teens and provide a possible dissolver for talking while driving are the wide variety of Global Positioning System (GPS)-based monitoring systems. These systems use the GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) communicate to log the vehicles location and speed at rule-governed intervals and allow downloading of the data for further analysis. most advanced monitoring programs provide over-speed alerts and/or send data to a central computer or system through a wireless communication network for bring in teen drivers in real-time.It should be remarked that, in addition to the use of teen driver tracking, these kinds of GPS tracking systems have been successfully used for commercial fleet tracking and network-wide traf fic monitoring. Similarly, the windshield camera produced by DriveCam Inc. can record the driving behavior and transmit digital images to a central data boniface for further analysis.The above-mentioned (passive monitoring) systems, however, are not seamlessly integrated with cell phones, so none of them can actively prevent the use of cell phones even when the vehicle is in motion. They provide only an opportunity for the monitor to give post-violation advice and instruction to the teens, when it might be too late.6.3. Cell Phone Based Context acknowledgementCurrently, mobile phone usage is no longer limited to making and receiving calls, both GPS and accelerometer sensors have been astray supported in the next generation of mobile phones. For example, both GPS and accelerometer sensors have been installed in iPhone 3G alacrity phones from apple Inc., and 50 percent of Nokia mobile phones shipped in 2009 will be GPS-enabled.A number of studies aim to utilize embedded sensors i n the next generation of mobile phones, specifically GPS and accelerometer sensors to discover and take advantage of considerationual information such as user location, time of day, as well as the type of activity the user is involved in, such as walking, driving, or standing still. This contextual information can be used to alter the phones status creating a smart phone that is safer and/or more user friendly. Chen and Kotz (2000) provided a comprehensive survey on context-aware mobile computing research. They suggest that although context-awareness is a widely researched topic, there are still areas that could be further explored. The authors specifically highlight the need to further develop the awareness, communication, and use of context-based computing as having the most potential to benefit society.The coat of contextual information to cell phones is critically important because it determines what the user is doing, and thereby when to alter the phone status. SenSay is one recent application (Siewiorek et al., 2003) that integrates contextual information with cell phone use. Combining a cell phone with sensory data, user information, and user history, the researchers were able to provide a context aware phone that improves its overall usability. For example, the phone is able to change ringer volume and vibration, and further provide dynamic phone alerts and call handling depending on the users activity. The real-world application of this device is limited because of peripherally needed devices, but the integration of this type of context feel devices within phones holds great potentials.In a GSM or 3G networks, triangulation among two or more cellular towers, signal strength fluctuations, and changes to the current serving cell phone towers can be also used to estimate the context of cell phone users (e.g. study by Anderson and Muller in 2006). The result of context identification, including the speed of moving cell phones, can be used to distinguis h driving vs. walking or remaining still. This contextual information can be used to prevent risky driving behaviors, such as talking while driving and texting while driving. However, as shown in a study by smith et al. (2004), the existing cell phone-based speed estimation results are less accurate when compared to GPS-based methods.These results are exaggerated during periods of obstruct traffic or stop-and-go traffic on arterial streets. This review was able to identify various devices for sale that are marketed toward teen drivers all with the purpose of monitoring and or reducing poor driving habits. These devices are tools which parents can use to monitor, advise, and teach their children long after the learner and gradational driving experiences have passed. several(prenominal) companies currently offering some of these devices were contacted and asked if there were any studies or research that had been done showing the effectiveness of their products. The companies respond ed that studies have been done, but that the results were proprietary because they had been financed by insurance companies.7. Economic Analysis of Restricting Cell Phone UseAlthough there is sufficient data to prove that cell phone use while driving increases the risk of crashes, complete restriction of cell phones by drivers has been controversial in part because of the benefits consumers and society receive from these calls and because the exact number of crashes caused by cell phone use are unknown. Several researchers have attempted to quantity these values by comparing the total societal cost of crashes caused by cell phone use to the benefits society receives from the same. The results of three such studies are listed belowHahn and Tetlock (1999) A complete ban on cell phones by drivers would result in a societal loss of $23 billion annually.Redelmeier and Weinstein (1999) A complete ban on cell phones by drivers would result in a societal loss of $300,000 annually.Cohen and Graham (2003) A complete ban on cell phones by drivers would result in a net societal loss of zero.The Cohen and Graham study was a re-analysis of the Hahn and Tetlock study with updated estimates and more comprehensive analysis. Because the exact numbers of crashes that are caused by cell phone use is unknown and it is difficult to quantify the value of cell phone use in society, these variables needed to be estimated in the analyses. The variability between the three estimates shows how the results are highly dependent on the estimation of these variables. In a Study by Martin et al. (2006), researchers canvas the impact cell phone use by drivers had on traffic flow. A car following behavior was identified by simulated driving for both the non cell phone user and the cell phone user.The researchers then used these car following behavior rulels and through simulation and microscopic traffic modeling, were able to identify the impact that cell phone users had on the traffic stream efficiency. The research found that with different traffic conditions and varying percentages of cell phone users, cell phone usage while driving had a negative impact on traffic flow when traffic volumes were moderate or high. Converting these delays into pecuniary units, the researchers were able to project the cost of the delays caused by cell phone users throughout the entire United States passage network as significant.8. Findings and RecommendationsDistracted driving has been a public concern ever since the beginning of the automobile. Cell phone use by drivers is widespread. Intuitively, one understands that cell phone use while driving is distracting and dangerous, and many studies have proven that instinct to be true. Experimental and behavioral studies have drawn an unambiguous conclusion that cell phone use by drivers results in a cognitive distraction leading to an increased risk of collision. Studies have also been able to quantify this risk as at least as dangerous a s driving while impaired by alcohol at the legal limit of .08 mg/ml.Epidemiological examination of actual crash data compared against cell phone records provides confirmation that driving while using a cell phone increases the risk of collision. In the epidemiological studies reviewed in this paper, the increased risk of collision when using a cell phone while driving was found to be between 1.3 and 5.59 times greater than non-users. Real-world data, although scarce, has also confirmed that cell phone use while driving is the single largest driver distraction leading to collisions. Studies are mounting that show an obvious correlation between cell phone use while driving and increased crash risk.The association between cell phone use and increased risk of traffic crashes seems to be validated by epidemiological, behavior, experimental and real-world studies, but the actual number of crashes directly related to cell phone use is harder to determine. Because the exact number of crashe s directly related to cell phone use is unknown, the likely financial savings to United States drivers for outlawing cell phone use while driving is also uncertain. Other important findings are listed as follows (1) Government at all levels has tried to legislate a solution for this problem with poor results, (2) Young drivers are especially susceptible to the danger of cell phone use while driving because they are already overrepresented in the crash statistics, (3) Technology is intervening where legislation has failed to provide solutions to the problem of cell phone use while driving.To improve driving safety in general, and to prevent talking on cell phones while driving in particular, the following initiatives and innovations are critically needed. 1) Accurate reporting of cell phone involvement in collisions on police reports The underreporting of cell phone involvement in collisions on police reports, the best indicator of how many collisions are directly related to cell pho ne use, has proven to be significant. This is worrisome because many legislative efforts to stop the use of cell phones by drivers are based at least partly on this data. Legislative efforts in themselves have shown to be minimally effective to statistically ineffective in curbing the use of cell phones by drivers. Several government agencies have nonetheless continued want for some type of solution to this problem.2) Technological solutions for accurately identifying driving mode of cell phone users A wide variety of research has been devoted to mobile phone-based context identification by GPS, triangulation, or signal strength. Despite considerable research efforts, the technology remains insufficient to properly distinguish the exact mode of cell phone uses such as driving, walking, or remaining still. Even with all the available location and movement data, it is still extremely difficult to distinguish if a cell phone user is driving a car, seating as a passenger, or riding a bus or train. inaccurate context identification could lead to problematic disabling of the communication capability when a cell phone user is not driving a car. Additional research is still needed in the area of artificial intelligence to improve the context estimation accuracy.3) Integrated driving monitoring systemThere are many products that have been designed to address the problem of cell phone use by young drivers. Some existing context based technologies are designed to passively monitor an one-on-ones driving by recording their movements and making them available for download at another time. Some advanced monitoring technologies allow for real-time alerts to be sent to a central computer or by text message through wireless communications. These technologies can give real-time information to parents about safety concerns, but fail to provide any way of actively preventing the dangers from happening. The need for a context based solution that also allows for active preventio n of cell phone use while driving is apparent.4) Safety-based insurance policiesDistance-based insurance policies have revolutionized the way automobile insurance is evaluated. Distance-based policies are more reflective of the soulfulness mile-based risk and result in more fitting premiums. As distance-based insurance policies have changed how we think about insurance, so can safety-based insurance policies. If a driving safety profile could be determined for an individual consumer, insurance rates could be tailored to better reflect the individuals collision risk. This method could help further reflect a drivers risk and in many cases lower the insurance premiums or be an incentive for aggressive or inexperienced drivers to drive safely. 5) Cost-effective car safety features self-propelled manufacturers are engaged in the design of safety features on vehicles, which are intended to enhance the drivers ability to avoid collisions.Some of the state-of-the-art safety features that are being explored by the automobile manufacturers are forward-looking speed radar, autopilot systems, lane departure warnings, integration of video cameras, collision alerts, situational awareness systems, active headlights, and vehicle-to-vehicle communications. Automotive manufacturers have the objective of creating a smart car through the integration of technology. The smart call will be designed to enhance the drivers ability to avoid collisions, but the driver will still maintain control. These devices, although potentially very effective in reducing vehicle collisions, fail to address the problem of cell phone use by drivers.Automotive attempts at collision avoidance systems are also relatively expensive and in some cases are limited by participation and communication between vehicles.The complete restriction of cell phone use by drivers seems to be unlikely because of the lack of concrete evidence showing how many crashes are caused by cell phone use, and what the cost of su ch a ban would be. Short of a complete restriction, a technology that would self-impose restrictions or that could be tailored to the most dangerous demographic of young drivers becomes most probable. A technological solution that is practical, effective, context-based, cost-effective, and focused on the drivers actions is critically needed.ReferencesAllstate Foundation. (February 2007). Parents and teen driving safety quantitative study. 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